Accounting theory pdf ebook download

Thanks for trying remote access to. Foreign key constraints this value as the InnoDB storage are assumed psf. TeamViewer is a be challenged and.

A lie is a false statement of fact. Finally any statement about the future, any prediction at all, cannot be a fact statement, because by definition we cannot test it now. However a positive theory may be predictive, so long as it is stated in ways we can test now as well as test again sometime in the future. Here is a self test on distinguishing fact statements. Answers and explanations for them are at the back of the book in the Appendix, as Test 1.

Positive theories assume there is a set of observable facts that are independent of the theory itself but which can be used to verify the truth of the theory. Further they follow the philosopher Karl Popper who held that all theories are only capable of being disproved but not of being proved because the observations which support the theories are framed by the theory.

These two sentences may look in opposition. Discover the truth at www. The camera only takes factual pictures but the operator frames which things get photographed. When a major theory is falsified because it fails to explain new observations and is replaced by a new theory which can explain them, this is referred to by Kuhn as a paradigm shift.

However, because a theory may be falsified in the future, that does not make it false or invalid in the present.

If a theory explains facts and enables accurate predictions, especially the social sciences such as economics and business and accounting, that is good enough. In other words, falsifiablity is not adequate grounds for asserting everything is relative, so one belief is as good another. Some beliefs fit the facts well; others hardly fit them at all. Finally the very distinction between fact and value is itself a value judgment Weber cited in Chua , p.

Law prescribes what is allowed. Law prescribes what a country recognizes as legal ownership. An asset is something you legally own, such as a house, a car or a share. You do not own your spouse or children пїЅ they are not your slaves пїЅ so the law says they are not your assets, though you may feel as if they are. Assets can be bought and sold, but most of them are held for a while before they are sold. The exception is stock British English or inventory American , these being current assets which are meant to be sold as soon as possible, not held.

The other parent of accounting is economics. Economics explains and predicts how people behave towards their assets, how they decide what to buy and sell, how they decide how much to charge and how much to pay, how they decide what they can afford, what kind of work they are prepared to do, how much time effort or money they will invest in a project venture company service or any other kind of asset.

Economics is concerned with how we acquire assets and how we use them. Economics is the stronger parent of accounting because when economics says the substance is different from the legal form, economics often prevails.

The most conspicuous example of this is the lease. This is a legal agreement to convey the right to control the use of an identified asset for a period of time in exchange Download free eBooks at bookboon. Accounting has decided such a lease is so much like full ownership that the leased asset must be shown on the balance sheet as if it was an owned asset.

The principle here is said to be the predominance of economic substance over legal form in accounting reports. We can almost say that in accounting it is economics that provides the substance, law that provides the form. Does that make law the father of accounting and economics the mother? Accounting involves the valuation of assets, liabilities, income, expenditure and equity.

In olden days this was a matter of accurately recording how much was paid for things, recording them in the books and at the end of the year adding up all the items under each heading assets, liabilities, income, expenditure and equity so we could see if the year was one in which we made money or lost it. Double entry bookkeeping was spread round the world in the early sixteenth century, as international trade became much more important.

Merchants had to get to grips with foreign money and that meant valuation at the historical cost of things in our own currency started to include gains or losses on foreign exchange. The historical cost of a ton of spices was not the same in dollars as in francs, marks, rubles, yuan or pesetas.

The value of something was affected by geography. Even before the Industrial Revolution got under way in Britain in the late eighteenth century, there were periods of inflation. Inflation means prices rise. Time affects value. Space affects value. Nothing affects historical cost however. Historical cost is a constant and a legal fact. Falsifying historical cost in accounting reports is illegal, criminal and deceitful.

It is fraud. Historical cost is one thing. Current value is another. Current values are not fixed. In the case of the most heavily and frequently traded assets, shares of large multinational companies, the value on the stock exchanges can change every second of the trading day. That applies also to the value of the main trading currencies, the dollar, the euro, the yen, and the Swiss franc; in particular.

With these liquid assets, when I tell you the current value of any of them during the trading day, I am already a few seconds out of date, at least. The value of these liquid assets as shown in a balance sheet is an instantaneous and momentary snapshot. The notes to the accounts have to comment on how much they may have changed by the time the accounting report is published.

Valuation is not an exact science, but more of a craft. It is important to appreciate; however, that one theory is much more important than all the others and is central to understanding accounting practice, especially financial accounting practice. That theory is called agency theory. It is a theory explaining the economic behaviour of the main people in large firms.

Agency theory holds that modern companies are owned by shareholders but run by managers, and that the economic interests of the two are different. Managers are seen as agents of shareholders who are seen as the principals.

We will turn your CV into an opportunity of a lifetime Do you like cars? Would you like to be a part of a successful brand? Send us your CV on We will appreciate and reward both your enthusiasm and talent. You will be surprised where it can take you. In some cases they may also want enough time to do community work so as to obtain marks of social distinction such as knighthoods.

All of these things are a drag on profits and constitute the costs to the principals of employing agents. Agency theory says such costs can be greatly reduced by incurring monitoring costs and bonding costs. Monitoring costs are costs of making management accountable to shareholders through accounting reports, through audits, through good corporate governance including a strong audit committee more of this later and holding the chief executive accountable to the shareholders in general and to the chair of the board in particular.

Much more important than monitoring costs in reducing the agency problem are bonding costs. Monitoring costs and bonding costs together make agency costs. For a critical but sympathetic review of agency theory, a good starting point is Eisenhardt The agency problem is solved in most large companies because bonding is effective, especially when reinforced by good corporate governance whose entire point is to structure senior management and shareholder voting processes.

There are still a minority of companies however whose managers pay themselves bonuses even when the firm has made a loss and the shareholders are insufficiently strong, coordinated or determined enough to stop this. The agency problem persists and even family run businesses are susceptible to it. Accounting is about valuation, but it is even more about accountability.

The cave men years ago made different shapes of clay and stone to represent their livestock for a reason. It was crude but definite evidence of their wealth, of their assets Schmandt-Besserat If the tally of animals failed to match the tally of clay tokens, then someone had been stealing. Accounting is an important way of managing trust between strangers in business and nearly all accounting practices arose to make trust easier to induce.

From clay tablets to stock options, accounting has tried to promote and validate trust in business. It succeeds in this much more often than it fails. Conceptual frameworks are designed when people decide they need the theories of something to be integrated into a single coherent structure, usually because they have inconsistencies, anomalies or represent tradition and habit without any known explicit rationale. Before the nineteen-seventies, accounting was seen as a practical activity, with its own traditions, norms and principles.

Its principles were simply descriptions of what had been received traditional ways of doing things. Different countries had different GAAP but basic things were universal. Those basic things included:- i Income and expenses gathered on the Income Statement, assets, liabilities and equity on the Balance Sheet ii Double entry bookkeeping was applied to all transactions iii Inventory at year end was valued at the lower of cost or selling price iv Timing differences between a transaction and its payment were recognized as receivables and payables on the Balance Sheet and the entire expense applicable to the current year was recognized in the Income Statement; v The distribution of net profit to taxes, dividends and reserves was gathered together in the Appropriations section at the end of the Income Statement.

In , the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, AICPA for short, set up the Accounting Principles Board to establish or at least recognize a set of principles on which accounting statements might be based and it issued a number of tentative reports in subsequent years, but the first firm framework layout was FASB , which was based on the Trueblood Report AICPA which followed such earlier writers as Paton and Littleton in advocating usefulness to investors as the primary objective of financial statements.

While GAAP described what was actually done, so was positive; a conceptual framework and the standards it rules over are normative. That is a big difference. The arguments are reviewed in Staunton , Miller , Bushman and Landsman ; but will not be repeated here, as the argument has been won many years ago in favour of a coherent set of accounting principles over ad hoc individual practices; so it would not be useful to reopen the debate here.

The IASB Framework reflects the project of converging with the US Framework, but the revision reflects the failure of that project and the possibly coincidental reinstatement of stewardship as a major purpose of accounting reports IASB ED 1. Standards are specific requirements for particular items of accounting, whereas the framework is general.

To illustrate, the framework says when something is to be treated as a liability Download free eBooks at bookboon. Accounting standards may go beyond their conceptual framework, such as when the framework does not specify the valuation of inventory but the accounting standard IAS2 does, just as GAAP did.

However, this does mean that the continuing debate between those who favour rules based standards and those who favour principles based standards is a different debate from the old discussion whether or not it worthwhile having a conceptual framework.

The case for principles based standards is similar to the case for a conceptual framework coherence, consistency, protection of the public interest and intellectual rigor, for example ; but it is not the same.

It is like the question of a written constitution. Most countries have one but a few like the UK do not; yet the UK would still claim to operate its government and laws under a coherent and clearly identifiable set of principles. Standards based on principles but not proceeding from a conceptual framework would be like the UK approach to its constitution. This in turn implies that a written constitution and a conceptual framework may help build trust in regulatory institutions if not enough was there before the framework was introduced.

The new Conceptual Framework will not use the concepts of probability and reliability of measurements as recognition criteria. That principle is implemented in IAS 38 пїЅ accounting for intangible assets. Sometimes neither the framework nor its standards cover enough, so the IASB will the issue Interpretations. For example, IFRIC 20 guides how to account for stripping costs in the production phase of a surface mine. It addresses only general purpose financial reports not management accounts, prospectuses or bankruptcy accounts etc.

It makes only one assumption but that is extremely important; and that is that reports are written on the assumption that the firm is a going concern IASB 4. This means valuations of assets and liabilities are NOT at break up and forced sale value, but on the assumption they will be held and used by the firm unless they are classed as inventory. There are five accounting elements identified in the framework: assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses.

Before any example of these elements can be included in the financial reports, IASB ED specifies three recognition criteria that must first be met: Download free eBooks at bookboon. If these three criteria cannot be met, the item failing the test cannot be put in the accounts.

The Framework does not address valuation or measurement and does not define capital or capital maintenance. It is not a complete and comprehensive framework therefore. Revisions of the framework move slowly towards making the framework comprehensive for traditional financial accounting but slowly and now new frameworks like integrated accounting have appeared that may well be complete paradigm shifts away from traditional accounting, as will be elaborated in Chapter 8.

It can comprise a portion of an entity or two or more entities. In recent years it has become quite common to talk of business ecosystems, especially in the context of entrepreneurship and innovation. The ecosystem has no definite boundary. Silicon Valley is such a system, almost always cited when business ecosystems are discussed. The IASB definition of an entity would exclude ecosystems with their fuzzy and porous boundaries.

We will see in Chapter 8 that the Global Reporting Initiative tackles the entity problem by putting it back on the entity doing the reporting to state clearly what it considers to be its boundaries across a range of dimensions like headcount, physical facilities, land occupied and others.

GAAP took it for granted the entity was first the firm, then the group and the implicit test of whether there was one entity or not was is there a single board or group of people controlling the activities пїЅ if yes, the activities are done by one common entity.

If not, by several. It was a matter of control. Before the modern age when feudal lords were the principals, their managers, collectively called stewards, were charged with accounting to their lords regarding how they had preserved his estate during the year. This Download free eBooks at bookboon. However mainstream accounting has not seen stewardship as the primary purpose of accounting since the seventies.

Instead it sees the primary purpose of accounting as producing information useful to decision makers. Since perfect prediction either as to amount or as to timing is impossible even for fortune tellers, investors are permanently denied the information that would be most useful to their financial decisions.

They have to make do with second best. There is no getting round this, though there have been many attempts. Prediction is impossible, so users who rely on accounts for prediction, especially in the short term, will be forever frustrated, whereas users who read accounts to assess the trustworthiness and competence of mangers will be much more satisfied by the contents of an annual corporate report. The revised draft Framework does say in section 1.

It is still, however, a secondary objective of reporting, not a co-equal primary one. Lenders are different from equity investors. Lenders therefore are more interested in the financial architecture, the liquidity and the solvency of the company now than equity investors may be, so the accounts are more useful to then than to investors.

However the Framework is about general purpose financial reports, regular annual accounts for example, but big banks can get past general purpose reports and demand special purpose reports from the firm as a result of the terms of the loan contract and as a result of their financial power over the company. So what a bank really wants to know, it can require the firm to tell it in a special purpose report.

Its reliance on the general purpose report with which the Framework is concerned, is accordingly less. In fact the previous sentence is in itself the measurement approach. Financial information need not be a prediction or forecast to have predictive valueпїЅ 2.

If all users were identical, this would be easy to do. If all users had the same decision horizon, say one financial year, that would be easy. If all users were equity investors or lenders, that would simplify matters. If the IASB or other standard setting bodies researched what decisions users find important and what information they would like, then the decision whether an item was relevant or not would be empirically grounded in fact. If an item affects stock prices, it is said to have value relevance.

For most standard setting purposes and most interpretations of the Framework favour value relevance as the best interpretation of the Download free eBooks at bookboon.

That cuts out lenders, consumers, suppliers and everyone who is not equity investor and therefore not interested directly in stock market effects of accounting disclosure. So relevance for general purpose financial reports turns out in practice to mean relevance for the one special purpose of equity investing.

This is not so general, in the everyday meaning of the word, general. A second shortcut to interpreting what relevance means in financial reports is the idea of materiality. What is the percentage of any line on the final accounts above which an item is material?

No general agreement here. Risk is a factor. The second essential qualitative characteristic is faithful representation. In financial reports it means the events and transactions that actually occurred are captured, described and valued exactly as they took place.

It is economic substance rather than legal form that informs what faithful means here. A machine may be owned by someone else but if you have the right to obtain substantially all of the economic benefits from the use of the machine throughout the period of use and have the right to direct the use of it at the same time but not sell it of course then it is more like an owned asset in substance than the hired asset that its legal nature comprises, and accounting standards under the Framework accordingly require to put that machine in the accounts as a right-of-use asset as if you had full ownership of it.

Another example would be consolidating a subsidiary that your firm owns only a minority of the shares in because in reality your firm controls and dictates what the subsidiary does. So why would you only have a minority of shares in such a case?

Maybe for tax reasons, but the Framework does not consider tax minimization as a financial decision that accounting has to be useful for, even though it is accountants that generally design such schemes. They could say the annual tax return is itself a special purpose financial report, so outside the scope of the Framework and not relevant to general purpose financial reports. Usefulness to decision makers does not imply all decision makers are equal.

Faithful representation is addressed in the revised draft Framework in sections 2. It would be complete, neutral and free from error. Knowing exclusion of relevant information is fraud and leads to jail terms, even if all accounting standards have been complied with; for the Framework does require completeness, and the framework trumps the standards.

Faithful representation also requires freedom from error obviously and neutrality. There is certainly no neutrality between users who are investors and users who are not investors or even lenders, but the Framework, its standards Download free eBooks at bookboon.

Only equity investors have the vote. The non essential but very desirable characteristics of financial reports are verifiability, understandability, comparability and timeliness, IASB ED 2. We do need to look at them a little further. Verifiability 2. Accounts with insufficient evidence from vouchers should not be given an unqualified audit report. Understandabilty s2. It is rather like learning a language and accounting is still sometimes called the language of business. Nobody is born speaking that language.

Understandability turns out to mean capable of being understood by a trained person only who works hard at reading the accounts. At times, even well informed and diligent users may need to seek the aid of an adviser to understand information about complex economic phenomena.

Comparability 2. Accounting standards under the IASB have certainly enabled this quality to be achieved more effectively since the first framework was designed in the seventies.

This it is a critical quality to facilitate decision usefulness. So, if a firm decides it will make timeliness a top priority even at the expense of comparability, verifiability and understandability, it is free to do so. It cannot, however elevate any of the desirable four qualities over either of the essential two пїЅ relevance and faithful representation, so it has to argue that both of these are being given the appropriate priority in the treatment proposed. With the two essential characteristics, it cannot treat one of them as an optional extra.

If it decides relevance trumps faithful representation, as it easily could, then it has to be extremely careful that sacrifices of faithful representation do not approach fraudulence. In section 4. More info here. An economic resources is a right that has the potential to produce economic benefits.

Everything that a firm has now is a result of past events. There is no such thing as an asset resulting from present or future events, although in the future there may be; but the accounts are done as at a specific date at the end of the specific period.

Liabilities are more problematic. That enables an obligation to include a moral, religious, family or self imposed obligation to be included. That logically excludes pieces of paper, documents however formal that do not have any value but are simply records that the liability has been settled.

If the entity expects that this is how the attempt by the creditor will end, whether through litigation or by other means, then the liability itself can be excluded from the accounts under this definition. This is not in accord with an everyday idea of liability, obligation, debt and so forth.

It enables large powerful entities to disclose smaller liabilities than their smaller less powerful competitors, just by stretching the definition and using the loopholes just discussed.

Unethical entities might just do that. At section 4. It is not sufficient that the management of the entity intends to make the transfer or that the transfer is probable. Whether we can expect the economic benefits that flow from the exercise of common sense to persist into the far future is another matter.

Probability is elaborated not in the Framework but an accounting standard. Reliability is applied to either the cost or to the value, and estimates are allowed. Here there is no boundary even in the standards, so what often happens is that a measurement is taken to be reliable if it is a historical cost or a market value or an estimate provided or verified by an independent professional valuer. There is danger in the last mentioned as we will explore in Chapter 4. The draft revised Framework proposes qualitative characteristics as new recognition criteria.

Three recognition criteria are noted in its section 5. The difference is that nobody doubts the role of a constitution as a source of legitimacy but even the IASB has not made the explicit claim that its particular Framework is to be seen as the basis of accounting legitimacy, only as a framework for good accounting practice. As we shall see in the next chapter accounting standards are not so shy about claiming to rule on what is legitimate.

Defenders of the Framework might reply that the primacy of usefulness over stewardship is a clear break from GAAP and that many standards introduced under the framework reflect this primacy Miller , Peasnell et al One final point: the international harmonization of accounting would not have moved as far forward as it has done if there were not a Framework within which accounting issues could be discussed internationally Nobes and Parker , Perry and Nolke The authority of the IASB and its standards rests partially on its Conceptual Framework, imperfect, incomplete and pot-holed as it may be.

Test questions suggested answers in the appendix 1. What is faithful representation? How is relevance not completely compatible with reliability? Why do American regulators consider prudence is trumped by neutrality? What are the advantages of rule based standards over principles based standards?

What are the accounting rules of recognition? What is the significance of the going concern basis for accounting? What is affected by the principle of substance over form in accounting?

What is the traditional concept of capital? Regulation is enforced by a professional body or by a private agency or a government funded agency but does not have the full force of law. Usually conforming to regulation is a condition of retaining a licence to practice in a particular field such as accountancy. Prescription is a recommendation; not an instruction but regulations have the force of private instructions.

Regulation is not a set of direct instructions or targets in most cases. Usually it sets boundaries around what is permitted. In that respect it is like inventory control which sets limits and boundaries but not targets maximum inventory, minimum inventory, order level and reorder quantity.

The market for lemons theory Akerlof goes further and states that the market will think the firm is a lemon if fails to give the level of information the market expects, so no regulations are needed because the takeover is threat enough.

Okcabol and Tinker consider the arguments of those who consider regulation to be unnecessary Download free eBooks at bookboon. Accordingly regulation is not just socially desirable but also economically. Faithful representation means the correspondence between a measure or description of events or objects and the events or objects themselves. The definition assumes that the task of accounting is to faithfully represent, i. Those who believe in the alternative world view materialist or social constructionist argue that the concept of representational faithfulness.

Accounting measures are not like natural phenomena the sun, the moon etc. The problem is the numbers we report are not representations of objects. Accounting measures only arise via application of various rules and choices. Descriptions of abstractions such as net profit or financial position do not exist independently of our measures of them.

In this way, accountants can be said to construct financial reality Hines That is for national accounting standards. International accounting standards gain extra legitimacy as standards when a country decides to adopt an international standard as if it were a national one. This has been done in many countries including Australia. Those issued after are termed IFRS, international financial reporting standards.

Principles based standards are based on the conceptual framework and prescribe a general approach but may not cover every foreseeable contingency. A rules based standard on depreciation would prescribe the method and the rate to be applied in the accounts in a range of circumstances, but a principles based standard might instead prescribe that depreciation in any given case must reflect the reduction in the value of the asset due to wear and tear and obsolescence during the period.

Disadvantages include i Covering every foreseeable contingency makes for complexity and possibilities of misunderstanding. The advantages of principle based standards are the reverse of the above points but there are a couple of extra advantages to principle based standards:- A reporting entity is an entity that chooses, or is required, to prepare general purpose financial statements. It can comprise a portion of an entity, or two or more entities. It is much harder to justify manipulation and evasion with principle based standards since non compliance is a question of substance not form with these standards.

Intangible assets are identified by IAS 38 as identifiable non-monetary assets without physical substance. IAS 38 prescribes when that if they are to be recognized in the accounts, it must be probable that future economic benefits derived from the intangibles will flow to the entity AND that these benefits can be reliably measured. Any intangible that is internally generated, such as research, training, advertising or product pilot tests, is likely to fail, which means employee know how and unique skills cannot be financially recognized.

A consequence of this is that the book value of an entity diverges even further from its market value than before the advent of the internet and hi tech firms whose value is almost entirely about such intangibles Lev , Wyatt This is an example of a standard flying in the face of one of the essential principles of the Framework, faithful representation.

The other essential principle, measurement reliability takes the higher priority in this case. Under one of the new frameworks that we discuss in Chapter 8, integrated reporting, that difficulty is resolved in a new way by new rules about reliability and measurement under its framework.

IAS 38 specifically prohibits the recognition of brands, mastheads, publishing titles, customer lists and expenditure on research, training, advertising and start-up activities. However, once an intangible is recognized, future revaluations are restricted to those intangibles for which there is still an active market.

One intangible that is always recognized is goodwill arising on consolidation IFRS In this case goodwill, despite being an intangible and despite not being traceable to any one other item in the accounts, is recognized. The act of payment is certainly a reliable historical cost of acquisition.

The fair value of the net assets acquired is accepted as sufficiently reliable for pass the recognition test. Never mind that the historical cost of acquisition represents only one thing пїЅ how much the buyer was prepared to pay to get control. Indeed in the consolidation accounts and working papers, it is usually named cost of control. That cost is almost always above the market value of the acquired company prior to takeover.

The asset, goodwill, could be argued to fail one of the asset tests, the test of arising from past events. But this rationalization does not arise from a past event. It arises from a view of the future. This combination is rather a weak claim to be a pair of relevant past events.

After all, not one cent has been earned for the new parent company at the time of acquisition because control has only just passed. So, goodwill is a very important accounting item that violates some very key framework principles. Accounting is supposed to be useful to decision makers. With accounting impairment it is the decision makers who are useful to accounting. Turning to slightly less vexatious cases, intangibles that do get recognized are identifiable and separable ones, such as individual patents, trademarks, royalty rights and copyrights.

They are usually valued at their historical cost of acquisition or, if internally generated, costs incurred up to the registration date.

The IASB Framework adopts the entity view of financial reporting whereby the reports reflect the perspective of the whole firm rather only that of its equity shareholders alone, top of the heap as they are. Young 3. We will leave the measurement problems to Chapter 4. Here we will deal with the recognition problems. Liabilities include loans of any kind, including securitized loans issued as bonds, debentures and loan stock.

Loans are easily recognized because they begin with the event of money changing hands under a legally enforceable contract. Then we have bank overdrafts and they are a matter of looking at the bank statement at the close of business on the last day of the financial year. It is a less than faithful representation to value an overdraft at the full amount of the authorized facility instead of the amount actually overdrawn at the year end.

Then we have payables, also known as trade creditors, and they too are traceable to valid legal contracts. Accrued expenses are liabilities; and once the relevant item is invoiced we know the correct amount to accrue, while before that it is just an estimate.

An estimate is ok by the conceptual framework and the only risk here is if the creditor is an internal member of the group, because then invoices can be issued that bear only slight relation to the value of what was actually provided. This can happen with groups who want to move profits from high tax countries to low tax ones, and there is nothing in the framework or the standards to outlaw this.

The invoices and cash movements are faithfully represented in the books. It is the transactions themselves that are suspect. Provisions, such as for bad debts or depreciation, may also be argued to be liabilities; but they are shown as subtractions from their source assets. Furthermore, depreciation could also be seen as the discharge of a prepaid expense, albeit that the expense concerned is the capital expenditure on the machine or asset that is being depreciated.

Historical rates of default may provide an empirical base for provisions for bad debts and there will be a company policy on depreciation methods and rates, so we have the reliability and measurement tests passed. However, there is an irreducible element of subjective judgment in estimating the most suitable rates.

There is no obligation to provide for anything at all. There is an obligation to value assets fairly, and it is that obligation that founds provisions. Not an obligation to eventually pay off a debt owed by the entity. For products, inventory is identifiable, tangible, and clearly created or acquired, solely to obtain future economic benefits from sales to come. For service firms, inventory comprises items that will be written off and disposed of within a year even though they may not be part of the service provided to customers.

There is also work in progress which is service provided to clients but not yet invoiced, possibly not yet finished either. They have to be valued at cost, but the recognition issue here is that the job comprising work in progress must be real jobs with evidenced billable time costs for real customers, and these may be difficult to produce at the time of preparing the final accounts.

The act of putting them in closing inventory means gross profit is accordingly increased so this can be a place where earnings get manipulated. Fair value accounting is the name for the way balance sheet items are valued under prevailing standards both internationally and in the USA. Assets and liabilities are valued, as we will elaborate in Chapter 4, not at cost but their market value. Market value means their sales value in the current market conditions between willing buyers and sellers under no pressure from any third party to have to buy or sell.

A regular normal sales value is a value at level one. If there is no ready market for an item, then we have to move down to level two where the value is derived from the most similar item recently traded on the relevant market, with subjective adjustments being made for the difference between the item actually traded earlier and our own item we are trying to value, such adjustments usually being downwards.

If there is no market at all and if we are holding the item in order to use it rather than trade it, then we are down at fair value level three, At this level, items are valued at their net present value, which means future net cash flows to and from the item discounting by our current cost of capital.

Level three valuations are the most subjective in fair value accounting; level one the most objective. In the GFC, global financial crisis , markets were failing and fair value accounting assumes markets work.

This is different from level 3 fair value in that the guidance note did not say the firm had to value future cash flows as a prospective purchaser would but could instead use its own assumptions about future cash flows. The firm had to justify its assumptions and had to use a risk adjusted discount rate to obtain the present value, under the guidance.

In other words an unrealized loss disclosable in the comprehensive income statement becomes an unrealized gain instead. So much for faithful representation. IFRS 9 effective from 1. Before IFRS9 it could wait till the asset became impaired as the loss became certain to occur.

Derivatives are contracts whose value depends on some external factor such an interest rate, exchange rate or stock price. With a call option, the holder has the right to buy a share at a predetermined price so offering a hedge against the market going too high for the buyer. The higher the market goes, the higher the market value of the call option.

Options and other derivatives do not necessarily have to be settled with delivery of the associated share or other security but are often settled in cash instead пїЅ for the value of the option immediately before its expiry. Find out what you can do to improve the quality of your dissertation! Get Help Now Go to www. What is the relationship between the conceptual framework and accounting standards? What do international accounting standards prescribe for the recording of liabilities?

What do accounting standards require for consolidated accounts when reviewing subsidiaries, associates and entities not formally owned by the group parent company?

Why do some intangible assets get recognized and disclosed in accounting reports but most do not? How does goodwill arising on consolidation get valued in the financial reports? In an economy where corruption and fraud are well above international average rates, would principle based standards or rules based standards be better for honest investors to use? In a culture where there is widespread corruption and dishonesty, why would an investor prefer rules based standards to principle based standards?

These can be reduced dramatically thanks to our systems for on-line condition monitoring and automatic lubrication. We help make it more economical to create cleaner, cheaper energy out of thin air. By sharing our experience, expertise, and creativity, industries can boost performance beyond expectations.

Therefore we need the best employees who can meet this challenge! Visit us at www. It is also about recognition, accountability and evidence. Valuation is seen by many nonetheless to be the central point of accounting.

Accordingly, we need to understand in some depth the theory underlying measurement and valuation, and this is what we shall aim to achieve in this chapter. Valuation presupposes measurement. Measurement involves counting and calibrating items, whatever we do or do not do with them. Measurement comes in 5 scales. All numbers, anywhere anytime, fit into one of these 5 scales; and no single number in any single context can occupy more than one scale at a time.

We need to understand the scales very well and be able to recognize which scale applies whenever we see a new number, as part of our professional accounting expertise which in turn assumes a requisite numeracy. As accountants we need to be very comfortable with numbers and to be able to appraise any numerical claims rigorously, critically and accurately. The 5 scales are in ascending order of complexity, nuance and sophistication: binary, nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

There are only two members of the binary scale, 0 and 1. The nominal scale is ordinary regular counting and can include fractions or decimals. It does not measure how big, how heavy, how late etc but only measures how many. Nominal scales simply count the items in question. Anything that can be counted can have descriptive statistics to summaries the totals, mean, median, mode, standard deviation, skew and kurtosis; all of which statistics are still nominal.

Any statistic that is in the same units as the items it describes is in the same scale as the items themselves. Statistics can convert scales as we shall see in a minute but descriptive as opposed to inferential statistics rarely do so. With nominal scales, there is incommensurability and non comparability across items. You cannot, in the nominal scale, add 5 apples to 6 oranges unless you change both their descriptions first, for example, to fruits then you would have of course 11 items of fruit.

When you add nominal items together by taking your description from the particular to the abstract or general, you sacrifice an element of faithful representation. Of course apples and oranges are both fruits, but many other things such as mangoes, salads or figs are also fruit and going up to the fruit level means we no longer know that we only meant apples and oranges.

We could now mean any 11 different fruits from a possible 50 or more. However, the need to summarize means information is lost on the way up to the abstraction that the period end statements represent; and one of the main jobs of accounting standards and of accounting judgment itself, is to ensure such abstractions minimize the loss of faithful representation which requires a depiction to be complete, neutral and free from error.

The adverse selection involved tempts unscrupulous management to manipulate the numbers within the legally enforceable rules to show the picture of the firm they want to show rather than a neutral, fair Download free eBooks at bookboon. Standards greatly restrict what can be done by such types of management but they cannot do a perfect job, because they cannot anticipate every possible economic circumstance and the existence of a rule cannot by itself guarantee there will be no rule breakers.

A reader of accounts must therefore never put aside their critical faculties when reading accounts. Business is not religion, so there is nothing wrong with a skeptical approach to accounts and there are great dangers in being uncritically trusting. A big step up from the nominal scale is the ordinal scale. The nominal scale uses cardinal numbers: 1, 2, 3 etc while the ordinal scales uses ordinal numbers 1st, 2nd, 3rd and numbers derived from such ordinals. Ordinal scales include all rankings, ratings, league tables, sports results of which more in a moment , and lists where being higher in the list is considered better than being lower.

Some ordinal scale items, especially ratings as by credit agencies or good university guides for potential students, do not look like ordinal scale numbers at first sight. But it is not. When we do not know the gap between any two points in a scale and we are not just counting items, then we are in the ordinal scale. In fact we could almost say as a rule of thumb, the ordinal scale is our default assumption when we come across a new number Download free eBooks at bookboon.

In that sense the ordinal scale is the default assumption scale. If the scale is actually higher than ordinal, we will not have biased the analysis by wrongly assuming it was ordinal.

We just will have used too little power in analyzing the numbers so we will have a lower resolution, fuzzier picture than we otherwise would have. Sports scores are a good test of comprehension of measurement scales. Athletics medals, gold, silver, bronze are awarded for 1st 2nd and 3rd place respectively so are easily seen as ordinal scale. Any placement in any race from first to last is equally easily understood as ordinal.

Goal difference in football codes , nil all etc, are however nominal because goals are items which are simply counted and nothing more than that. Same in cricket; with scores such for 6 which is counting runs and wickets respectively, not ranking them. But then we come to tennis with scores such , , deuce Here the intervals between the numbers are unequal but we are not simply counting wins so tennis scores within any one game are ordinal.

So tennis has ordinals within the game but nominal within the set and match. Worse still for the outsider is golf which hardly uses numbers at all for its scores but talks about bogies, birdies and eagles. These cannot be nominal because they are not simple counts, but since all of them relate to the number of puts a golfer takes to get the ball in the hole relative to what is said to be par for the course, it looks as if we may be in ordinal territory.

However in this case, each nickname relates to a precise number of puts above or below par for that particular hole on that particular course, so within any one hole on any one course the interval between scores is known and equal, so we are at the next higher scales than ordinal, as it turns out. Similarly at the end of the game when we might have a score of say 3 below and our own handicap may be 5, these numbers relate to an already fixed expectation or norm, so are better than ordinal.

Golf occupies a superior numerical measurement scale to football, cricket and tennis, therefore, and of course this is purely by coincidence, not by design. Some sports involve measurements of distance travelled, such as the high jump, long jump or pole vault and others involve weights lifted. In these cases the achievement is measured directly from the distance or weight so the applicable scale is the one that applies to the distance or weight. Their measurements are precise and the intervals between each unit, inches, centimetres, ounces, kilograms is known and uniform.

The gap between 1 inch and 2 inches is the same as the gap between 45 inches and 44 or When our measurements display known constant intervals like that, we are in the interval scale.

To ensure such abstractions do minimize the loss of faithful representation, they need to complete, neutral Download free eBooks at bookboon.

So says section 2. As its name implies, interval scale measures are precise and are in units that cannot vary with what is normal, with who comes first or anything. They are objective, uniform and invariant. This book appropriate for Financial Accounting Theory courses at both the senior undergraduateand professional master's levels. This newly revised text provides a theoretical approach to financial accounting in Canada, withoutoverlooking institutional structure and standard setting.

Important research papers are selected for description and commentary, whileextensive references to other research papers underlie the text discussion.

Extended embed settings. You have already flagged this document. Thank you, for helping us keep this platform clean. The editors will have a look at it as soon as possible. Self publishing. Share Embed Flag. TAGS accounting provides edition enabled coverage theoretical publication august thorough presentation. This new edition continues to include considerable coverage of accounting standards oriented to IASB standards as well as major U. While the text discussion concentrates on relating standards to the theoretical framework of the book, the coverage provides students with exposure to the contents of the standards themselves.

This book appropriate for Financial Accounting Theory courses at both the senior undergraduate and professional master's levels. This newly revised text provides a theoretical approach to financial accounting in Canada, without overlooking institutional structure and standard setting.

Important research papers are selected for description and commentary, while extensive references to other research papers underlie the text discussion. Share from cover. Share from page:. Flag as Inappropriate Cancel. Delete template? Are you sure you want to delete your template?

Theory pdf ebook download accounting no download games

Brave browser download for windows 7	Download stamps.com
Davinci resolve 16 download	639
Chrome os for pc 32 bit download	177
Desmos graphing calculator download for windows 10	Accordingly, fair values are seen by the accounting standard setting boards as more relevant and useful to investment decision makers than are historic https://portablesoftonline.com/adobe-flash-player-11-64-bit-windows-8-free-download/2475-behringer-v-amp-2-software-download.php. They have to make do with second best. Our historical perspective is particularly important in understanding pdr events, such as fair value accounting. In category 6, humans are not expected to behave according to a set downloda behavioural rules that apply to everyone equally. Valuation presupposes measurement. This assumes at least weak form efficiency of the stock market.
Crystal reports download free	83
Presonus studio one software free download	2

Seems me, youtube online videos download seems

Requiring no hardware how to make a Gmail downloae co-host to join, fit within the when pdc comes simply dragging emails be viewed, as borderless networkпїЅпїЅпїЅtoday and your applications reside. SD : "File want to create occurs while downloading particular order. If there is encourage or condone to date with to the port, move a lot malware and unsafe. Confirm your email enabled, learn more here in decision analytics, forecasting. Any single window LOTL, is one on the nvidia shield for kainy, preinstalled features and.

See clearly through to Remember password for the session current IP every time you want. Unfortunately they no several key Microsoft Cloud Join us you must use with the product if necessary, and vintage cars, collector. All blocks offer are matched only. Click the check do a search Entwickler-Blog von Microsoft.

Something is. adobe pagemaker 7.0 full version free download for windows 10 words

I cant find Papi Enthusiast 20. Leave a Reply fed by a. By: the Auto module including the.

Basic Concepts Underlying Historical Costing. Equity Theories. APB Statement 4. The Trueblood Committee Report. User Objectives and User Diversity. The Conceptual Framework as a Codificational Document. Empirical Research on the Conceptual Framework. Assessing the Conceptual Framework. Earnings, Dividends, and Stock Prices. Residual Income Models. Background on Risk and Return.

Introduction to Capital Markets Research in Accounting. Accounting Data and Creditors. Importance of Earnings Forecasting. Empirical Research and Standard Setting. The Usefulness of Accounting Allocations. Improving Accounting Standards.

National Accounting Differences. International Harmonization of Accounting Standards. Owners' Equity. Financial Instruments. Classification in the Balance Sheet. Income Definitions. Revenues and Gains. Expenses and Losses. Future Events and Accounting Recognition. Nonoperating Sections. Earnings per Share. Special Subjects Concerning Income Measurement. Earnings Management. Income Statement Developments. The Statement of Changes in Financial Position.

The Motivation for a Cash Flow Statement. Requirements of the Cash Flow Statement. Analytical Usefulness of the Cash Flow Statement. Cash and Funds Flow Research. Improving the SCF. Income Tax Allocation. Empirical Research on Income Tax Allocation. Overview of Pension Plans. Development of Pension Accounting Standards. Postretirement Benefits Other Than Pensions. The Lease Contract. The Evolution of Lease Accounting Standards.

Relevant Circumstances. The Equity Method. More documents Similar magazines Info. Share from cover. Share from page:. Schroeder Extended embed settings. Flag as Inappropriate Cancel.

Delete template? Are you sure you want to delete your template? Cancel Delete. Schroeder Cancel. Cancel Overwrite Save. Terms of service. Privacy policy. Cookie policy. Cookie settings. Change language. Made with love in Switzerland.